Sufism: The Mystical Dimension of Islam
Neither foolishly nor frivolously, in the lane and the market, I whirl! (Rumi)
Sufism, also known as tasawuf is the spiritual form of Islam that appeared in the 8th century AD. Besides religious debates, Sufis contributed enormously to Islamic literature and philosophy over the next few centuries. The movement reached its peak in fame and popularity around the 13th century with masters like Rumi “whirling in ecstasy” to spread its message. Islamic mysticism had its dimension in terms of interpretation and understanding of religious ideals. In stark contrast to the traditionalists, Islamic mystics were more inclined towards the esoteric meanings of the religion. This contradistinction would make grounds for an interesting intellectual and sometimes real debacles between the Sufis and their traditional rivals. While at many instances in Islamic history Sufis faced deep-rooted antagonism for their beliefs, yet they were able to produce monumental literary and philosophical works that had a deep and long-lasting impact.
Fiqh, Kalam and Sufism
Sufis had their understanding of Islam that deviated and in certain cases came in conflict with the traditional interpretation of the religion. To them, their path (tariqa) leads a Muslim on a journey of personal engagement with the Divine reality. They put more emphasis on the esoteric or inwardness (batin), contemplation, and development of the soul, as compared to the stress the traditionalists put on the outward (zahir) duties of the religion. For a Sufi religious duties without a cultivated soul lacked the true essence and became a mere day to day practice with no value and meaning. In their view, it was apt to stress the love, the gentleness of God almighty in contrast to the wrath and majesty of God which had a central place in fiqh (jurisprudence) and kalam (apologetic theology). Some researchers are also of the opinion that even the word Sunni (one who follows the Sunnah) has a different connotation for the Sufis. Shahram Pazouki mentions the usage of Sunni by Rumi, not in the context of Sunni-Shia schism but to indicate a true Muslim. In Sufi thought, a true Muslim would follow all three dimensions of Sunnah i.e. the exoteric Sharia and the esoteric tariqa and haqiqa. In the words of Rumi, the sharia is the candle that lights the way, tariqa is the path that a wayfarer takes and haqiqa is the destination. This three-dimensional expression of the Islamic faith is in contrast to the one-dimensional focus of the dogmatic theological scholars on Shari’a alone.
Some main Theological questions and the Sufis
During the 13th century, a hot debate on several theological questions such as the vision of God and free will raged between the Mutazilites and Asharites. The Mutazilites believed that God cannot be perceived with the corporeal eye while the Asharites contended the vision of God would be possible with the corporeal eye on the day of Resurrection. The Sufi thinkers including Rumi rejected both these ideas, suggesting that the vision of the divine is only possible with the inner eye. The corporeal eye was a thing too base to have a vision of the Almighty. The question of whether a human being has free will in all the acts he/she performs was a controversial point of discussion between the Mutazilites and Asharites. The former held that man is free in all his acts (mukhtar), while the latter produced equally strong arguments in favor of determinism (jabr). Similarly, Rumi took an intermediate position on the debate concerning free will. As Rumi exemplifies by telling us an anecdote of a thief that stole apples. The thief upheld that his thievery was preordained and therefore he may not be held responsible for it. He received a solid beating with the “stick of God” to make him understand that God does not order sinful deeds. Rumi uses this anecdote to express Sufi point of view regarding the freewill versus no free will debate. Accordingly, a person is neither completely free nor coerced. The question of free will has perplexed theologians since the times of St. Augustine. Ibn Arabi in his Futuhat ponders upon this perplexing theological conundrum and arrives at a solution by making a distinction between creative and obligating commands of God. In his view, the “engendering commands”(al-amr al-takwînî) such as “kun fa yakun” (36:82) are responsible for the creation and function of the Universe. In this domain, everything is run by natural laws and there is no escaping from it. The prescriptive commands/obligating commands (al-amr al-taklîfî) such as commands relating to good/bad, right/wrong, beliefs, faith, and religion, etc is the aspect of life where humanity is capable of using free will. The guidance regarding these commandments and prohibitions are sent by God to humanity via his chosen prophets. Thus making humanity responsible for their social, religious, and spiritual actions. For Arabi, following these commands was necessary to discern the reality (haqq).
Ghazali, Razi and the Sufis
Ghazali in his Deliverance from Error praised Sufism in comparison to other spiritual options available in his time and contended that a proper understanding of the Sufi way surely leads to spiritual reward described in the Quran and exemplified by the life of the Prophet of Islam. Ghazali arrived at these conclusions after going through a “crisis of faith” which he considers was alleviated by his understanding of Sufi ways and experiences. In his monumental work The Revival of Religious Sciences that earned him the sobriquet “Proof of Islam” Ghazali goes in length to defend the practice of Sema (listening), a Sufi practice of contemplation involving music, dance, and special attire. The practice was unacceptable to the likes of Ibn Taymiyyah who condemned anyone participating in such a practice. Cleansing one’s heart from all worldly thoughts and making it adept at the remembrance of God is a fundamental idea of the Sufi way. To achieve this, the Sufi way included dhikr (Invocation) of the attributes of God along with the obligatory and supererogatory prayers. A form of meditation, dhikr, according to the Sufis has profound effects on mind and body. It is through dhikr the Sufi strives to fill their hearts with divine love and deep wisdom. al-Iskandari, a 13th-century Sufi scholar wrote a detailed manual on the Sufi practice of dhikr (The Key to Salvation) and its psychological and physical impacts on the subject. In this magnum opus of the Sufi practice of dhikr, he quotes Ghazali:
“invocation is an inner reality in which the invoked takes possession of the heart while the invokee is effaced and vanishes”.
Au contraire, from Rumi, Shams, and Bahaudin Valad we gather that a bitter rivalry ensued between the Sufi and the famous Asharite theologian Fakhar-ud-din al Razi. al Razi perhaps considered by the Sunnis as the second most important theologian second only to Ghazali received staunch criticism at the hands of Rumi, his teacher Shams and his father Bahaudin Valad. Valad criticized al Razi for his worldliness, and his good terms with the people in power and authority, something the Sufis loathed. In Fihi ma Fihi, Rumi calls upon the ulemma to avoid the company of the princes (people of power and authority) and even condemns those who do so. Franklin Lewis informs us that Valad even called him a deviant. On similar lines, al Razi became an object of criticism for Shams of Tabriz, who criticized his reported arrogance and pride he took on his rational knowledge. Reportedly al Razi would call himself Muhammad e Razi and in order to rhyme the name of the Prophet of Islam with his, would call him Muhammad e Tazi (Muhammad the Arab). This was unacceptable and blasphemy to Shams, who thought that al Razi should seek repentance. History has it that al Razi did seek repentance for his fiqh and kalam in a will dated 21 July 1209. Rumi criticized al Razi in his Mathnawi, though he mentions him once by the name he alludes to al Razi elsewhere describing the anecdote about his death and his repentance. To Rumi without experiencing the religion through tariqa, rational interpretations are useless and without effect. Something that al Razi held dear throughout his life. al Razi’s indulgence with dialectical theology and philosophy was a point of concern for sufis of his time. They sought to correct him or invite him to nurture the batin instead of wasting time with the knowledge of zahir. This concern is best reflected in a detailed letter by Ibn al Arabi the great Andalusian mystic philosopher to al Razi advising him to find salvation through the Sufi way and leave the discourse and dialectical theology behind. Bringing to al Razi’s attention the limitations of intellectual capabilities in matters concerning the knowledge of the divine, Ibn al Arabi writes:
Knowledge of God is contrary to knowledge of God’s existence….God (great and glorious) is too exalted to be known by the intellect’s [powers of] reflection and rational consideration (naẓar).
Though in his later life, al Razi’s writings and poems reflect Sufi motifs, his life throughout remained different from what the Sufis would have preferred for him.
Bibliography
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Letter to Imam al-Razi
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